Mahayana, meaning “Great Vehicle”, is the largest major tradition of Buddhism that emerged around the beginning of the 1st century BCE. Originating in ancient India and spreading throughout East Asia, Mahayana encompasses a rich tapestry of teachings and practices. At its core, Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes the ideal of the bodhisattva, an enlightened being who remains in the cycle of existence to alleviate the suffering of others.
Through various practices such as meditation, mindfulness, and moral conduct, Mahayana aims to cultivate wisdom, compassion, and “bodhicitta”—the awakened mind. The term “Mahayana” itself means “Great Vehicle” in Sanskrit, reflecting the idea that this form of Buddhism offers a broader, more inclusive path compared to the earlier, closed and monastic Theravada tradition, which is known as Hinayana, meaning “Small Vehicle”.
Featured Image: P. Madhusudan, 1 Buddha Andhra Pradesh monastery, Hyderabad state museum, Telangana, CC0 1.0
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Table of Contents
- Historical Background of Mahayana Buddhism
- Mahayana Philosophical Framework
- The Bodhisattva Ideal and Compassionate Wisdom
- The Bodhisattva Path
- The Concept of Buddha Nature
- Sunyata: Emptiness & Interdependence
- Mahayana Meditation (Dhyana)
- Prajnaparamita Sutras: The Perfection of Wisdom
- The Six Perfections
- Skillful Means & One Vehicle
- The Three Turnings of the Dharma Wheel
- Criticisms Against Mahayana
- Indian Mahayana Buddhism
- Mahayana Schools & Traditions
- Mahayana Buddhism and Social Activism
- Conclusion & Final Thoughts
Historical Background of Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana Origins
Mahayana Buddhism originated in India and gained prominence during the beginning of the Common Era. It was a movement that arose as a response to the needs of a changing society and the aspirations of practitioners seeking a path beyond personal liberation. Mahayana texts, known as sutras, presented new teachings and concepts that expanded upon the earlier Theravada tradition. The movement spread to various regions, including China, Tibet, Japan, and Korea, where it flourished and gave rise to new schools of buddhist thought.
Numerous hypotheses have been proposed regarding the origins of Mahayana. Some academics argue that it emerged from the “Mahasamghika” Buddhist tradition. Others suggest that it sprung from forest dwelling, hard core ascetics who tried to imitate Buddha. However, there is no evidence that Mahayana was a sectarian buddhist movement. Neither did it ever have a separate disciplinary code (Vinaya), different from the early schools of Buddhism.
Mahayana was never a separate monastic sect outside of the early schools, but rather a movement focused on the preaching of Mahayana sutras that developed within traditional Buddhist institutional structures.
Mahayana Expansion
The movement although it was initially quite small, without any impact on Indian Buddhist thought, it experienced much growth in the 5th century. Mahayana institutions such as Nalanda and Vikramashila became monastic centers of knowledge and science, including Mahayana philosophy.
Over time Indian Mahayana texts and philosophy spread from India to Central Asia and China through trade routes like the Silk Road. They later spread throughout East Asia, influencing East Asian Buddhist thought. In the 4th century, Chinese monks travelled to India to bring back Buddhist teachings. Later, new developments in Chinese Mahayana led to new Chinese Buddhist traditions like Pure Land, Tiantai and Chan Buddhism (Zen). These traditions would then spread to Korea, Vietnam and Japan.
Mahayana Philosophical Framework
Mahayana’s expanded cosmology accepts the classic core beliefs and teachings of Buddhism, such as the Four Noble Truths, The Eightfold Path, The Three Jewels, The Dependent Origination and adds a broad range of new doctrines and philosophical ideas.
At the heart of Mahayana Buddhism is the aspiration to become a buddha (bodhisattva), a compassionate being who seeks enlightenment not only for personal liberation but also for the benefit of all sentient beings. This emphasis on altruism and compassion is a distinguishing feature of Mahayana Buddhism.
Mahayana sutras, considered to be the teachings of the Buddha, form an essential part of Mahayana literature. These sutras elaborate on the path of the bodhisattva and provide guidance for practitioners on the cultivation of compassion, wisdom, and skillful means.
Another key concept of Mahayana Buddhism is the notion of emptiness (Shunyata), referring to the understanding that all phenomena lack inherent existence or substantiality. This teaching emphasizes the interdependent nature of reality and encourages practitioners to transcend fixed views and attachments.
The Bodhisattva Ideal and Compassionate Wisdom
The Bodhisattva Ideal
At the core of Mahayana Buddhism is the bodhisattva ideal—the aspiration to attain nirvana (enlightenment) not only for oneself but also for the benefit of all sentient beings. Mahayana teachings emphasize the cultivation of wisdom and compassion as interdependent qualities, essential for realizing the bodhisattva path. Compassionate wisdom entails recognizing the interdependent nature of reality and responding skillfully to the suffering of all beings. In addition, numerous sutras also state that a key part of the bodhisattva path is the practice of a set of supreme virtues called paramitas.
The historical Buddha, Shakyamuni, is revered as the central figure in Mahayana Buddhism. However, Mahayana recognizes the existence of countless buddhas and bodhisattvas being currently present in different worlds. According to Mahayana texts, these transcendental beings have great powers and continuously manifest to guide and help others on their spiritual journey. The Buddhas Amitabha, Vairocana, Aksobhya and Bhaisajyaguru are unique to Mahayana tradition. So is Kuan Yin, a female bodhisattva and beloved deity in China. Devotion and veneration of buddhas and bodhisattvas are common practices in Mahayana traditions.
Compassionate Wisdom
An important feature of Mahayana is the way it understands the nature of a Buddha, which differs from non-Mahayana understandings. The idea that Buddhas are active and caring for the world, rather than just teachers, makes them accessible. Through prayers and devotion, meditation or mentioning the Buddha’s name, one can obtain liberation and rebirth as in the case of Pure Lands Buddhism.
The Bodhisattva concept is not unique to Mahayana. In early Indian Buddhism, the term was used to refer to the original Buddha. Theravada Buddhism also accepts the concept, however, it holds that only a few exceptional beings can become bodhisattvas and not everyone. In fact, for Theravadins, only Maitreya, the prophesized future Buddha is accepted as bodhisattva.
The Bodhisattva Path
The Bodhisattva Path involves the cultivation of ethical conduct, meditation, and wisdom, guided by the bodhisattva ideals of compassion and awakening. The path advances through progressive spiritual stages known as the Ten Bhumis, or levels of realization. However, there is disagreement on the number of levels among the various Mahayana texts. Some mention 7, 10 or even 40 levels (Avatamsaka sutra).
The Concept of Buddha Nature
The concept of Buddha nature refers to the inherent potential for awakening or enlightenment that exists within all sentient beings. According to Mahayana teachings, Buddha nature is not something that is acquired or developed over time, but rather something that is already present within each individual. Hence, it is considered to be an innate, timeless aspect of one’s being, often described as the “seed” or “embryo” of enlightenment.
Sunyata: Emptiness & Interdependence
Central to Mahayana philosophy is the concept of Sunyata, commonly translated as emptiness. Sunyata challenges the inherent existence of phenomena and the notion of a separate, enduring self in persons. It asserts that all phenomena lack inherent essence or independent existence, and their nature is interdependent and interconnected. Understanding the absence of self and the realization of the nature of reality, is described as the ultimate truth. However, this understanding goes beyond intellectual knowledge or wisdom and requires direct experiential realization.
It is important to understand that Sunyata does not imply a nihilistic void, but rather points to the idea that all phenomena lack inherent, independent existence. Through the realization of emptiness, one can transcend attachment to the illusory nature of the material world and gain insight into the ultimate truth of existence.
Mahayana Meditation (Dhyana)
Meditation and visualization practices are an integral part of Mahayana Buddhism. There are numerous meditation methods and practices, some specific to individual schools. Through meditative techniques, practitioners develop mindfulness, concentration, and insight. Visualization practices involve mentally creating vivid images of buddhas, bodhisattvas, and enlightened realms, fostering a deep connection with the qualities and attributes they represent. In addition, preaching, reciting and memorizing Mahayana sutras is an important part of meditation.
The most common meditation methods involve mindful breathing, visualization of the Buddha, reciting Buddha’s name (Pure Lands), Gong’an (Koan) and silent illumination. In Pure Lands Buddhism, chanting the name of the Amitabha Buddha and visualizing the Buddha and the Pure Land is the most common form of meditation. In Chan (Zen) Buddhism, they use Gong’ans (Koans). These are didactic phrases, questions, shouts, laughter or gestures to foster awakening of the mind. In addition, mindfulness of breathing and silent sitting or silent illumination are among the most common meditation methods.
Prajnaparamita Sutras: The Perfection of Wisdom
The Prajnaparamita Sutras, revered scriptures within Mahayana Buddhism, expound upon the perfection of wisdom. These sutras present profound teachings on the nature of reality, the practice of emptiness, and the path to awakening. Prajnaparamita teachings emphasize the transcendence of all conceptual limitations and the direct realization of non-dual wisdom. The cultivation of wisdom through the study, contemplation, and meditation on these sutras is considered a transformative practice in Mahayana Buddhism.
The Six Perfections
The six perfections, also known as the Six Paramitas, are foundational practices in Mahayana Buddhism. They are qualities and virtues that practitioners cultivate to develop wisdom, compassion, and skillful means on the path to become a bodhisattva. Each perfection represents a specific aspect of ethical conduct and spiritual development.
Generosity (Dana Paramita)
Generosity involves the act of giving, both material possessions and non-material offerings such as time, knowledge, and support. It is the selfless act of sharing and providing for others without attachment or expectation of reward. Through practicing generosity, individuals cultivate an attitude of abundance, compassion, and non-attachment to material possessions.
Moral Conduct (Sila Paramita)
Moral Conduct refers to upholding ethical principles and living in accordance with virtuous behavior. It involves refraining from harmful actions, such as killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct, and intoxication. Practicing moral conduct promotes harmony, integrity, and the well-being of oneself and others.
Patience (Kshanti Paramita)
Patience involves maintaining a calm and composed mind in the face of difficulties, challenges, or provocation. It is the ability to endure hardship, criticism, or unfavorable circumstances without reacting with anger or resentment. By cultivating patience, practitioners develop emotional stability, tolerance, and the capacity to respond skillfully to various situations.
Diligence (Virya Paramita)
Diligence refers to the energetic effort and enthusiasm applied to spiritual practice. It involves wholeheartedly engaging in meditation, study, and other virtuous activities to overcome obstacles and progress on the path. Diligence helps practitioners develop inner strength, perseverance, and a sense of purpose in their spiritual journey.
Concentration (Dhyana Paramita)
Concentration pertains to the cultivation of focused and one-pointed attention. Through meditation and mindfulness practices, practitioners develop the ability to stabilize and unify the mind, reducing distraction and mental scattering. Deep concentration enhances clarity, insight, and the ability to penetrate the nature of reality.
Wisdom (Prajna Paramita)
Wisdom is the ultimate perfection that arises from the cultivation of insight and understanding. It encompasses the realization of the true nature of reality, including the understanding of impermanence, interdependence, and emptiness. Wisdom is the direct insight into the nature of suffering and the cessation of suffering, leading to liberation and enlightenment. All phenomena are empty, illusions like dreams. The Prajna Paramita texts are some of the earliest Mahayana key teachings.
These six perfections are interconnected and mutually supportive. Practitioners engage in these practices to purify their minds, develop virtuous qualities, and cultivate the altruistic intention to benefit all sentient beings. By integrating these perfections into their daily lives, Mahayana practitioners progress on the path toward awakening and the realization of their true nature.
Skillful Means & One Vehicle
Mahayana Buddhism recognizes the diverse needs and capacities of individuals on the path to awakening. Skillful Means, or Upaya, refers to the adaptable methods employed by bodhisattvas to guide beings towards liberation. Skillful Means emphasize the importance of tailoring teachings and practices to meet the unique needs of different individuals. This doctrine states that, out of compassion, the Buddha adapts his teaching to whomever he is teaching.
It is known that the Buddha taught three vehicles depending on the faculties of the individuals. However, these three skillful means are not different since they all lead to the same goal: Buddhahood. So, in essence, there are not three different vehicles but different aspects of one vehicle, that of the Buddhas.
The Three Turnings of the Dharma Wheel
One of the significant doctrinal developments within Mahayana Buddhism is the classification of the Buddha’s teachings (Sutras) into “Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma.”
The first turning includes the foundational teachings on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. It forms the foundation of Buddhist teachings and is shared by all Buddhist traditions.
The second turning is associated with the Mahayana tradition and primarily focuses on the teachings related to the perfection of wisdom (Prajnaparamita), the bodhisattva path and the teachings on emptiness. The Perfection of Wisdom Sutras, such as the Heart Sutra and the Diamond Sutra, are considered central to the second turning.
The third turning further refines and expands upon these teachings, emphasizing the innate buddha-nature present within all beings. Important sutras associated with the third turning include the Tathagatagarbha Sutra and the Lankavatara Sutra, among others.
Criticisms Against Mahayana
There have been many arguments against Mahayana regarding the authenticity of their teachings. The main criticism is that Mahayana teachings had not been taught by the Buddha himself, but were invented by later figures. However, Mayana argues that although not taught by the Buddha, they are in the spirit and central ideas derived from the Buddha.
Mahayana penetrates deeper into Buddhist philosophy. It expands upon early Buddhist thought and original holy texts and scriptures while introducing new dimensions through the Mahayana sutras. Through them, it offers a wealth of literature and commentaries that delve into profound concepts and new perspectives, providing a broader framework for philosophical exploration. From this perspective, many academics argue that Mahayana has been a turning point in the history of buddhism.
Indian Mahayana Buddhism
There are two major philosophical schools of Indian Mahayana: Madhyamaka, meaning “middle way” and Yogachara, meaning “yoga practice”.
Madhyamaka Philosophy
Founded by the buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna, this Indian Buddhist school of thought emphasizes the philosophy of emptiness, according to which everything is empty of existence and is only conceptualizations that need to be dissolved in order to understand the nature of things.
Yogachara Philosophy
Sprouting from early Mahayana tradition, the school focuses on the nature of consciousness and the mind; its view is based on the concept that all things are mind, consciousness or perception. A part of dependent origination flow of mental expression. The Yogachara literature on the nature of consciousness is considered as one of the most sophisticated in buddhist studies. In fact, the school is one of the most revered Buddhist schools in India.
Mahayana Schools & Traditions
Mahayana Buddhism encompasses a wide array of schools and traditions that have developed over time and in different regions. We can identify two main streams within Mahayana: The East Asian Buddhism of China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, and the Indo-Tibetan Buddhism in Tibet, Mongolia, Nepal and Bhutan and certain parts of India.
East Asian Buddhism
In China, Mahayana teachings merged with indigenous philosophies and practices, leading to the development of distinctive schools such as Chan (Zen), Pure Land, and Tiantai.
Chan Buddhism is a meditative tradition emphasizing direct experience and insight into the nature of reality. Pure Land Buddhism focuses on the veneration of Amitabha Buddha and the aspiration to be reborn in the Pure Land, a realm conducive to attaining enlightenment. Tiantai are known for their comprehensive and inclusive teachings, offering unique insights and practices.
Japan embraced various Mahayana traditions, with Zen becoming one of the most prominent and influential. Other Mahayana traditions in Japan include Pure Land, Tendai and Shingon.
The Korean Buddhist tradition also embodies Mahayana teachings, particularly the integration of Seon (Zen) practices.
Indo-Tibetan Buddhism
Embodying philosophies from Madhyamaka and Yogacara, combined with the esoteric yogic tradition of Tantra, and intricate rituals and meditation techniques, Tibetan Buddhism or Vajrayana Buddhism Tibet, Nepal and Mongolia. Although some academics do not consider it a separate school of Buddhism, it is one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism.
Newari Buddhism
A form of Tibetan Buddhism practiced by the Newar people of the Katmandu Valley. It is a non-monastic, no celibacy following tradition and the only one whose scriptures and texts are in Sanskrit.
Mahayana Buddhism and Social Activism
Mahayana Buddhism places a strong emphasis on compassionate action and engagement with the world. Engaged Buddhism, inspired by Mahayana principles, encourages practitioners to address social, economic, and environmental issues. Buddhist leaders like Thich Nhat Hanh and the Dalai Lama have played significant roles in promoting peace, human rights, and environmental sustainability. Engaged Buddhists actively work towards alleviating suffering and bringing about positive change in society.
Conclusion & Final Thoughts
Mahayana Buddhism is the largest one of the three main traditions of Buddhist religion, encompassing diverse schools and practices across different cultures. Its teachings on emptiness, the bodhisattva path, and the nature of reality offer profound insights into the nature of existence. Through compassion, wisdom, and skillful means, Mahayana practitioners strive for the liberation and benefit of all sentient beings. By embracing the ideals of the Great Vehicle, individuals can embark on a transformative journey that leads to the realization of ultimate truth and the attainment of liberation.
In a world grappling with complex challenges, Mahayana Buddhism offers a beacon of hope and guidance, inviting individuals to cultivate wisdom, awaken their innate compassion, and contribute to the well-being and liberation of all sentient beings. The Great Vehicle of Mahayana Buddhism stands as an inclusive and transformative path, guiding practitioners towards the ultimate goal of liberation and the realization of boundless compassion.
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- The Heart Sutra: Unveiling the Path of Ultimate Wisdom
- The Diamond Sutra: The Beautiful Hidden Gem of Perfect Wisdom
- The Lotus Sutra: The Sutra of the Wonderful Dharma
- The Eightfold Path: The Ultimate Way to Enlightenment
